American National Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American National Government - Essay Example The Supreme Court had never occasion to rule on freedom of speech issues until opponents of conscription during WWI were prosecuted for sedition. These cases established that speech that presented as "clear and present danger" to the government could be prohibited. This definition has remained the court's operative principle in such cases since that time. Since cases began to be brought before the court in the 1970s concerning campaign financing, the Court has consistently refused any limitation on the right of candidates to spend money, but just as consistently allowed the strict limitation of direct political contributions (so that, for example, an extremely wealthy individual could not single-handedly finance the campaign of any candidate but himself). The Supreme Court has always held that flag burning, precisely because of it unpopular and wildly politically inflammatory character, is protected speech. a. push: A push pool is a sort of telemarketing campaign disguised as a telephone poll in which the political operatives call potential voters and ask them leading or unfair questions meant to alter their political views. b.

A Critique Of Nancy Chodorow

A Critique Of Nancy Chodorow In Nancy Chodorows Family Structure, and Feminine Personality it is argued that care, development and socialization of children and females is largely rested upon women, and therefore provides the basis on gender personality development within males and females; but from the perspective of Margret Mead and her book Sex and Temperament this fails to account for separating the European views of male dominance, and also the role of the male in early development of the children, and the socialization of females. In the conclusion of Meads book she entered the idea that children school yard teasing, and their taught early gender roles were partially to blame for boys to perpetuate male dominated roles, and even the young girls themselves were to blame for furthering this ideology. Chodorow continues on mentioning mother/daughter relationships, and of double identification, but fails to account for malleability as well. In these mother/daughter relationships Chodorow continues to link this relationship as paramount to the gender socialization of the sexes. It is my belief that Mead would be superior in ultimately and authoritatively speaking on the basics of gender development in the sexes, due to her studies of different cultures. With Chodorow she continually speaks from the perspective of her native western nuclear socialite development, and only academically mentions other cultures which so happen to be possibly more developed towards the ways of the western world. The ability of being able to draft from a larger pool of culture that Margret Mead did made it possible to draw conclusions, form a basis and gave the ability leave out the Western world perspective allows the reader to conclude to similar opinions as Mead had. When Chodorow speak in large part of the Western, or nuclear families, she was able to draw the reader to make conclusions out of familiarity or even to have close access to ask the opposite sex questions to meet the similar opinions. The problem with Chodorows formatting of her short article and conclusions rested far too great of weight on the mother perpetuating of the male dominated society, and that the absent father added to further influence on the development of young boys and girls. Mead was able to present to the reader that in three different and distinct cultures that gender identity was not based on Freudian sexual needs but social conditioning. Chodorow even suggests that the mother/daughter relationship promotes the mothers own challenges within her own social development was transgressed onto the daughter, forming the daughters basis of womanly gendered behaviors known in the western world was feminine behaviors. This was contrasted by Mead when she wrote about the Mundugumor, in which children of either sex were considered a hassle and needed to survive by their own means, therefore both male and female were only differentiated based on physiologic differences, and both sexes displayed Masculine and Feminine attributes. Mead presented terms such as social conditioning in which the society provided the bonds, or lack of, for gender identity. Chodorows accounts were formed of the western perspective, and therefore drew from a shallow pool of cultural intelligence. Chodorow left the reader to believe that male dominance was something inherent and passed from generation to generation, and that naturally passed on due to the dynamics of the heterosexual relationship of men and woman the devel opment of young children. Mead was able to counter this believe in the 1935s when she talked about the Tchambuli peoples, in where the women were dominant, and the providers of the family; much like the opposite of the western worlds common beliefs. With Chodorow leaving the inference that gender identity were based on the Freudian model of sexual development, continued because it is also passed generation to generation based on the mothers upbringing discredits that there is malleability in society. The western perspective on gender identities, and roles had to of evolved from somewhere. With Meads views of the different and primitive societies, we the readers are able to draw conclusions that societies are based on their surroundings and passed down. Cultural borders or other borders allow differences to the Western perspective of male dominance. Mead was able to smash the ideals, that women, because of physiological differences with man created masculine/feminine roles. But in fact made the roles subjective in context to what the rest of that society views are masculine/feminine roles. Chodorow alleges that because women have such hard and limited lives of child rearing, lack of career choices, and dominated by men mothers pa ss this down to their daughters perpetuating the male dominance. With male dominance Chodorow had to contort her theory of male being dominant and women perpetuating this practice by conveniently including the absent father. The absent father image was what Chodorow presented; child males must transition from the role of son-mother connection and more towards their remote father and take on a positional role. I believe from after reading the context of Meads book and how its presents different cultures proves Chodorows claims as false. If the absent father is absent, then how can his role be influenced onto the child whose father is in fact, absent. In this case, this bolsters Chodorows initial claim that mothers determine the gender roles of both sons and daughters. But according to Mead and the Mundugumor people, children were seen as a liability to the men, and therefore already sent in motion the social conditioning that followed. The Mundugumor men viewed the children as liabilities, could potential beat their wives, and their society in resp onse forced the framing an anti-children society. So in this one culture Chodorows claim is disproven because Mead directly illustrated men do have an active role, and even went on further explaining this point with just this one Papua New Guinea tribe. Mead in her conclusion of Sex and Temperament noted that in the western world, child gender development was continued in the school yard. Chodorows view was more limited in that she was attempting to bolster her view that women gender identities developed as based on the mother/daughter relationship. Chodorow did acknowledge that some external events could influence gender role/identities development. Mead noted very powerful school yard bullying in two examples of feminine behavior being taught or reinforced on females in particular. One example was the usages of the word tomboy. Mead went on to note that the term formerly encompassed acting like a boy, dress like a boy and things like that. Nowadays all girls have to do is act like boys quite quietly. At the core of Chodorows argue of gender development is that the mother/daughter relationship forges the ideals of femininity. This is also entirely of the Western gender perspective. But Chodorow states that the formation of female gender identity is through the socialization of her mother, in which is socialized in groups of women, and therefore has no need to reject this perspective unlike the males. With girls and women there is not fanaticising of roles, but direct identity and therefore easily transitions these feminine identities. Chodorow leaves the reader to infer that there could be biological reasons for gender identities, with the theory of the mother/daughter. This maybe the way how gender identity is perpetuating in the western world, but in terms of evolutionary, it isnt the methods these are roles based. Mead concluded with her studies that the social conditioning defined the roles of male and females, she also further concluded that what is masculine and feminine is relative and not based to sexual identity. Mead with her cross cultural research noted three different societies, one where men has the traditional to the western world feminine attributes (Tchambuli), another culture were the women were as aggressive as the western world men (Mundugumor), and a third culture were men and women were exact complete equals (Arapesh). With these findings Mead was able to conclude that the individual society dictated the society structure and the gender roles, and what was masculine or feminine. The reader could also infer that both the genders were responsible for advancing the sociality gender identities onto the youth further progressing their gender models. Gender identities have been researched by both Margret Mead, and Nancy Chodorow, and both have presented excellent ideas to the sociology of genders. Margret Mead was able to present views from three cultures unlike our own. Chodorow mainly presented on a culture like ours, with references to other modern developed cultures. Chodorow was able to speak extensively for the female perspective of how feminine behaviors are passed from mother to daughter, and gave some examples on the male gender development. Mead was able to present that genders were malleable, and therefore changed based on what that culture demanded the roles of males and females be. Mead illustrated that women were not born feminine, and men not masculine. But that those qualities had to be taught onto the different sexes and outside of physical differences that man and women were essentially the same. Chodorow illustrated that gender behaviors were forged based on the relationships of the children to the parents, and if the children could assimilate based of their sexual identity. But Chodorow failed to present how these roles were started and only talked about how that are perpetuated. Chodorow also failed to give some explanation as to how these role behaviors either evolved. This is why I still believe that Meads writings are a little more comprehensive on the discussion of the roles of genders, and the relativity of masculine/feminine behaviors.

Arthur Millers Death Of a Salesman Exposes Morals and Values of American Culture :: Death Salesman essays

Arthur Miller's Death Of a Salesman Exposes Morals and Values of American Culture Arthur Miller's play, "Death Of a Salesman" is a very  Ã‚   elaborate play that tells the story of a man's dream to achieve greatness from nothing. It almost seems to make fun of American society's competitive nature, "Imagine? When the mail comes he'll be ahead of Bernard again!" Willy(1215)  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The title "Death Of a Salesman" leaves nothing to the imagination of how this play ends. Indeed this is a story about the noble, cowardly death of Willy Loman, a traveling salesman. Arthur Miller used the efficient idea of using flashbacks to allow the play to take place within a few days instead of years. Willy Loman as the central character, lives with his wife, Linda and has two sons, Biff (elder) and Happy. Willy Loman who is quite literally a "low man" has so many personality traits accurate to real life, this is no surprise since Miller based Willy's character on his uncle, Manny Newman. Miller said, "That homely, ridiculous little man had after all never ceased to struggle for a certain victory, the only kind open to him in society - selling to achieve his lost self as a man with his name and his son's name on a business of his own"  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Willy was defiantly in a struggle however, he was certainly not in a struggle to convince himself he was doing better than he really was, "I can park my car in any street in New England, and the cops protect it like their own." Willy (1165).   Willy Loman did not want to die, he went to Ben to seek approval of what he thought would please the family"...Ben, I want you to go through the ins and outs of this thing with me. I've got nobody to talk to, Ben, and the woman has suffered, you hear me?" Willy (1210) He also proved this with his many "near incidents" and the rubber pipe. According to "Suicide:The facts and myths" by Judi Marks, "Attempted suicides are a sorrowful form of communication, but they're also trial runs for the final event."  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Anyone who commits suicide actually does not want to die and reality, just wants a solution to end their problems or  pains. In this case Willy's problem was he thought he was so  well-liked by society, however what he wanted most was for  his sons to like him, and for his wife to not have to suffer his torment anymore.

Comparing poems Essay

In this essay I am going to compare the way the theme of racism is dealt with in the poems ‘Half caste’ and ‘nothings changed’. I will analyse the poems and then compare them. The things I will be comparing are the similarities and differences, the layout and also the use of language. I will be looking at both of the authors Tatamkhula Africa (Nothings Changed) and John Agard (Half caste) intentions and then decide which one of the poems I think is most effective. I am going to begin with a comparison of the purposes of the two poems. Nothings changed is about a black man looking back at his childhood and realising that ‘nothings changed’, he is upset about this as although segregation is said to have gone, he feels as if it is the same as before. Half-caste is about a mixed race man who is asking for an explanation for why they are treated like half a person. He refuses to be called half-caste as he finds it offensive. In both of these poems, the writer is dealing with the issues of racism. The two writers are expressing their anger and want the readers to take notice of how they feel. The two writers both use repetition throughout the poem. Tatamkhula used the phrase ‘nothings changed’ as both the title and the ending of the poem, this emphasises the fact that his whole poem is based on the fact that he feels that nothing has changed in his life, mainly on the aspect of the way black people are treated. John repeats ‘explain yuslef’ a number of times throughout the poem, he says this because his main aim of the poem is for people to explain themselves. These both are examples of repetition used by the writers to emphasise on their point that they want to get out by writing their poem. The two writers have a completely different style of writing. In nothings changed the writer uses standard use of English as he is happy to write this way. On the other hand the writer of half caste writes the words in slang. Clearly he wants to show the reader that he is what he is and is not going to change for anyone.  Tatamkhula compares a black person like himself to an ‘amiable weed’, he is doing this as he feels that both black people and amiable weeds are not cared for. Also he believes they are not wanted. He then later compares a white person to the opposite, a ‘red rose’, this maybe because he thinks that a lot of care is taken into caring for a red rose and also the white people. Here Tatamkhula expresses himself through metaphors and he does so continuously throughout the poem. John’s use of language happens to be really strong. He shows straight away that he is extremely angry. An example of this is that he said could have said you can come back tomorrow and listen my other half of my story if you want, however instead he demands the reader ‘yu must come back tomorrow’. The ‘must’ emphasises that the writer is serious.  Both of these writers use different type of writing to express the way they feel. Tatamkhula effectively uses metaphors to compare what he feels like and what other people are being treated as. John’s strong use of language makes his poem more effective as he is showing exactly how he feels in the first instant. Both writers’ intentions are similar. They both want the reader to think about and understand what they are going through. They want these problems of racism to stop. Tatamkhula writes about what he sees and feels. An example of this is when writes ‘I press my nose to the dear panes’. Here he is on the other side of the glass from were the white people are sitting. This shows that he is separated from the people. He expresses that although segregation has said to be gone, it is still there. He can see the white people through the glass, however the glass is like a border where he can not pass only because of his colour. John Agard throughout the poem is writing as if he is speaking to the reader. It seems as if he is having a conversation with the reader, ‘excuse me’, I believe that this makes it more interesting, and also encourages the reader to take it more seriously.  He often uses the term ‘half-caste’ to outsmart people who use this term. Although he uses slang he shows that he is aware of the things going an around the world. He says ‘yu mean when Picasso mix red an green is a half-caste canvas’. This is an example of him having good knowledge and yet outsmarting the term ‘half-caste’. Here he is arguing that if Picasso’s paintings can be a mixture of red and green, why can’t he be a mixture of races without being treated as half of a person. Tatamkhula explains how they are treated differently with the example of their food. At the ‘whites only inn’ there is ‘crushed ice’, ‘linen falls’ these both show expense and luxury items. He then compares this with what he is used to which is ‘bunny chows’ and ‘plastic table tops’ This clearly shows that this is not an expensive place, yet more shows it is a cheap place. He then adds further ‘Wipe your fingers on your jeans’ this shows that he is used to doing this, and yet is proud of doing it. He is not ashamed to express the way he is living and feeling. Both writers express their anger continuously through out the poem. They obviously want things to change, and want to be treated equally as everyone else. They express there feelings in form of a poem which they want people to take notice of, and maybe if they are the ones who are causing or doing something to make them feel like this, they would want them to stop instantly.  In my opinion I strongly believe that ‘Nothings changed’ is far more effective. I think this because it expresses more how he feels and what he is going through. Although ‘Half-Caste’ also expresses the writers feelings it is not as effective. This may be because Tatumkhula uses many examples of what he feels like and how he is treated differently.

Communicators of the Sea Essay

Dolphins are common creatures at rivers and seas. Majority of small toothed whales are dolphins. Dolphins are large sea animals making it part of the cetaceans, where whales and porpoises belong (Stoops, 1996). Dolphins belong to family Plantanistidae and Delphinidae, respectively. Often, people used dolphins and porpoises interchangeably denoting same species but porpoises in particuclar and dolphins are different species. Porpoises belong to family Phocaenidae; it has a rounded snout and chisel-liked teeth. While dolphins are under family Plantanistidae and Delphinidae, instead of a rounded snout, dolphins have beak like snout and sharp, conical teeth (http://www. dolphinlovers. com/facts. php) Fig. 1 Comparison between the snout of a porpoise and a dolphin Dolphins are outgoing creatures; often they are mingling in a group with two to fifteen animal members or more. Most of their communities are dominated by females, its offspring, sisters and other females. Subadult male dolphins will leave these female-dominated communities to start a group of â€Å"bachelor† dolphins; if these dolphins become sexually mature, they can move in the female groups for copulation. These mammals are very playful. They are often spotted riding the bow wave or stern wake of boats and â€Å"surfing† on waves. Chasing and tossing things to one another is one of their favorite plays. If seen jumping or breaching, it indicates enthusiasm for these creatures. Play is important for dolphins for learning and as well as to practice their skills necessary for their life’s survival (Geocities. com, 2006). Communication among marine animals, dolphins in particular are extensive and complex. The current paper focuses on these creatures’ characteristics, particularly their capability to engage in echolocation. Dolphins can see their environment like that of an X-ray machine and thereby transmitting this x-ray like images to other dolphins. If sight is very crucial for land animals, dolphins use a sound â€Å"seeing† system called echolocation. Echolocation is a sensory sonar system used by dolphins for communication purposes and for locating things in their environment. Through the sound waves released and listened to – size, shape distance speed direction and internal structure of an object is determined. This sound seeing system provides information such as water depth and the position of food and rocks making it effortless for them to catch their prey. (http://www. botany. uwc. ac. za/Envfacts/facts/dolphins. htm, 2007). Scope The paper begins with an introduction about the dolphin, and their general characteristics as sea creatures. This is followed by a discussion of their general physiology, including their skin, fin, swimming speed, breathing, and body temperature. The dolphin family is then discussed, with its 33 species – with 5 river species and 6 porpoise species. Of these, the most popular is said to be the bottlenose dolphin which are found in theme parks and are featured in television programs. The next focus would be on the dolphin’s brainpower, speficically in their capacity to make tunes among themselves with a wide range of sounds. Their distinctive communication patterns are likewise expounded on. The paper concludes with a call for concern and protection from humans, who are supposed to be stewards of these creatures. Overview With regards to its general physiology, dolphins have rubbery skin. They are classified as mammals and have the capacity of maintaining high body temperature. They can hold their breath for several minutes making it easy for them to have rapid and deep dives of more then 300 m (1,000 ft). To date, there are more than 33 different species of dolphins, over 5 different species of river dolphins and more than 6 different species of porpoises. Though there are many species of dolphins, the most popular are bottlenose dolphins which are frequently featured in television and theme parks. Perhaps their greatest strength is their ability to communicate with one another or to echolocate. This is the counterpart of language among humans. Dolphins create whistles and sounds signifying an action for which another dolphin can understand, it can signal danger for their kind hence they should be alert or a prey is near at hand thus, everybody must prepare; depending on the whistle produced. They can make signature whistles that carry distinct information. Considering the cognitive abilities of bottlenose dolphins, their vocal learning and copying skills, and their fission–fusion social structure, their communication process can be further studied to provide evidences about their â€Å"dolphin messages and echoes. † Humans have the responsibility of taking care of these creatures, acting as their stewards to prevent them from extinction. General Physiology of a Dolphin A dolphin’s body is smooth having a rubbery-feel of its hairless skin when touched. The skeletal remnants of five digits in the front appendage form the flippers mainly acting as its balancer during its swim. The rear appendages are almost absent because the small pelvic bones are deep-rooted in the connective tissue at the base of the tail (Dolphin Lovers. com, 2006). The subcutaneous dermal tissue of the dolphin forms its immovable dorsal fin; its tail fin is also dermal in its origin. Its movement is similar with the whales wherein the major force comes from its vertical oscillations of the tail and flukes making it capable to swim at a speed of 37-40 km/h, and in some events, its swimming speed reaches up to 48 km/h. Dolphins seem restless in traveling the rivers but in reality, it rides the bow wave by making use of the ship’s trust (Stoops, 1996) Dolphins are mammals, hence breathing and maintaining high body temperature is vital. Dolphins maintain its internal temperature at 36. 5 deg to 37. 2 deg C (97. 9 deg to 99 deg F), with its thick layer of dense fat (blubber) under the skin. At the top of its head, a single nostril or blowhole is placed where it acts as its lungs. Dolphins breathe air at the surface every two minutes consisting of brief unpredictable exhalation followed by a longer inhalation. Dolphins are capable to hold their breath for several minutes making it easy for them to have rapid and deep dives of more then 300 m (1,000 ft) (Dolphin Lovers. com, 2006). Their swimming capabilities attribute to its powerful tail and the special function of its skin. Due to their streamlined body contour enabling them to have rapid movements and deep dives in the sea like most marine animals. Fig. 2 General physiology of a dolphin The Dolphin Family There are more than 33 different species of dolphins, over 5 different species of river dolphins and more than 6 different species of porpoises (Geocities. com, 2006). Fig. 3 Some Species of the Dolphin Family Though there are many species mentioned, bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) are the most familiar species. It gained popularity because it has been a mainstay of TV programs. Also, people have the chance to meet and greet bottle nose dolphins at ocean-theme parks. The biggest dolphin specie is the one seen in the movie â€Å"Free Willly†; Orca (Orcinus orca) or the killer whale where the males can grow up to 9. 6 meters http://www. dolphinear. com/data/dolphin_species. htm Fig. 4. Picture of Orca and the Bottlenose Dolphin Dolphin’s Brainpower Greco and Gini (2005) say that dolphins are capable of making tunes among themselves with a wide range of sounds. Dolphins show evidence that their intelligence is greater than that of dogs. Dolphins learn easily and execute complicated tasks, continuous communications with one another, and their ability to mimic the sounds of human language if they are given ample time to be trained. Toothed whales have exceptionally large brains including the famously bright dolphins that have capabilities previously only attributed to humans and apes. Cetaceans (dolphins, whales and porpoises) and its ancestors acquired changes specifically in their brain through evolution. One of the reliable evidence to support this claim is by measuring the level of encephalization of a species or a taxonomic group. EQ is the measure of observed brain size relative to expected brain size derived from a regression of brain weight on body weight for a sample of species. EQ measures how much larger or smaller a species’ total brain size is from what is expected based on brain-body allometry (Greco et. al, 2003). Dolphins and humans share many common attributes. Both creatures are mammals wherein the young are born alive and not hatched from eggs. Air is important for both organisms since it sustains their breathing; the only difference is that dolphins must come up to the surface to breathe in its blowhole on the top of its head and when it dives, the blowhole closes unlike humans that continuously breathe air in its respiratory system. Wang (1995) asserts that aside from being mammals, communication is one the major attributes keeping these two organisms at par with one another. Humans are capable of language and speeches denoting an idea or message for a particular person while dolphins create whistles and sounds signifying an action for which another dolphin can understand, it can signal danger for their kind hence they should be alert or a prey is near at hand thus, everybody must prepare; depending on the whistle produced. Fig. 5 Illustration of the brain size of (a) archaeocete, Cetacean’s ancestor (b) dolphin Distinctive Communication of Dolphins The capabilities of different organisms are astounding particularly in identifying objects from a far. The association between object characteristics such as visual shape, and sensory characteristics like retinal projection, is unclear. The processes on how these characteristics work hand-in-hand remains imprecise. Dolphins communicate by making two types of sounds: vocalizations and echolocation are the two sounds produced by dolphins for communication. Vocalizations are the squeaking sounds from the blowhole that is often heard by humans which is used by dolphins to communicate. Echolocation also called sonar, is a distinctive ability of dolphins to locate and discern objects down under (Janik, 2000). A dolphin releases a particular sound and listens for the echo allowing dolphins to travel under dark waters without bumping or hitting into anything. As much as 1,200 clicks/ sound can be produced in a second and can be transmitted in advance These clicks are from the rounded forehead of the dolphin, melon; along with its lower jaw filled with jelly-like substances for sound waves amplification. When a dolphin swims, the head is moved back and forth to skim through its surroundings, while the echoes are send out to bounce off objects aiming at the lower jawbone, returning sound waves to the inner ear, and this whole process occur rapidly, similarly to how fast a human brain decodes if the individual accidentally touches a hot object. The pitch of the returning echo and the time it takes to get there is important so the dolphin can determine the shape, size, speed, texture, and density of the object; even inside of an object, almost like an X-ray (McCowan, 2001). Echolocation is not solely for communicative processes; it also serves the purpose of locating preys, other dolphins, predators, a lost baby or a sick dolphin. Through echolocation, it allows dolphin to explore its water world wherein sight is of little use. Also, echolocation entails fast analysis of the sound being heard as to what message is conveyed by the dolphin who send the sound (http://www. dolphins-and-more. com/dolphins-echolocation. html) If a dolphin makes a sound, the sound bounces off into objects and creatures then it bounces back in the dolphin’s direction who is going to receive the sound and the information given by it when its sonar receives it. The dolphin’s brain comprehends the message obtained, hence the dolphin will respond accordingly to the message. Echolocation provides vibrations, their frequency, the level of energy, the distance and if the object is moving or not is very important. With these factors interacting, it creates varied â€Å"dolphin messages† (Tyack, 2000). Echolocating dolphins serve as models for object recognition sonar systems. The association between echo characteristics and object characteristics was given emphasis. A dolphin may keep ‘sound templates’ in its brain and be able to recognize whole objects through listening for a particular sound. A dolphin’s brain may contain algorithms, resulting through natural endowments or experience or both, allowing it to identify object characteristics based on sounds (Wells et. al, 1987). Bottlenose dolphins are capabe of producing low frequency sounds ranging between 0. 25 to 150 kHz. Higher frequencies range make up echolocation; low frequencies sounds which is produced often are for social interaction, these low frequency signals can travel greater distance compared to that of higher as the signals travel much further distances. These frequency ranges are correlated with the amplitude obtained from studies of dolphins (Hoelzel, 2002). Click sounds are usually 40-70 microseconds, though short, these clicks are loud reaching around 220 decibels. Click trains are the sound sproduced by dolphins. It is consist of hundred or throusand of clicks per second which are high in frequency. High frequencies don’t travel as far as low frequencies, these high frequencies with very short wavelengths permit dolphins to echolocate on small objects and scrutinize the detail of an object. High frquency and the fine details of an objetc are directly proportional as such the higher frequecy produced, it would allow the dolphins to further examine the object at hand; also, it allows them to track their prey faster(www. dolphinpod. com). The localizing system ability of the dolphin Tursiops truncatus in discerning the characteristics of an object moving in radial motion was studied. The thresholds of the animals’ threshold sensitivity at its target were given focus. The speed and acceleration were measured respectively (2. 6 cm/sec) (0. 6 cm/sec2). For a target moving at a constant speed, dolphins used probe signals made of two impulses. If targets are said to be accelerating, impulses composed of three signals are used. These methods are proven effective for technical methods concerning hydrolocation and radiolocation. hydrolocation and radiolocation (Zhukovski et. al. , 2004). The dolphin’s wave production and sound is inversely proportional; for every wave production, the sound decreases by only 4  µ sec/decibel (dB). Low-frequency clicks (6-kHz peak power) are equivalent with three times increase far-reaching 12  µ sec/dB. The dolphin brainstem is capable of tracking individual click/ 6oo seconds. The latency and amplitude are inversely proportional (as latency is increasing, amplitude decreases) with increasing click rates. This proportionality may vary depending on the wave production of dolphins. The dolphin’s brain is capable of processing short frequent clicks. The wave production in correlation with latency and frequency as well as click production can further test the sonar signal processing of dolphins (Ridgway, 1981). The echolocation process – sending out clicks and listening to the click echoes – is what produces a kind of mental image of the object that a dolphin is investigating with clicks. We know that the changes in the structure of the click echoes are what a dolphin uses to form this mental image, although it is still an unsolved mystery exactly how they manage to accomplish it. This echolocation ‘image’ is unlikely to be something that a human being could imagine simply because people can’t echolocate. But, this â€Å"mental image† is currently the best analogy we’ve got. Scientists have learned from experiments with dolphin echolocation that their acoustic image is quite detailed, and allows a dolphin to do some pretty amazing things Real targets are used to study dolphin echolocation. Classifying the echo parameters is very difficult due to various factors affecting such as physical dimensions and the reflection characteristic of real targets. Dolphin echolocation sounds are transformed into artificial echoes, which are played back to the animal. The phantom echo system, a digital sound processing is used to make echo analysis easier. Echoes of several underwater targets were simulated to evaluate the quality of the method (Aubauer and Whitlow, 1998). In bats and technological sonars, the gain of the receiver is increased with time after the transmission of a signal to balance off for the lost acoustic circulation. The current understanding of dolphin echolocation reveals that automatic gain control is not a part of dolphin’s sonar system (Tyack, 2000). Field measurements of free-ranging echolocating dolphins were tested and the results showed that dolphins do have automatic gain control mechanism which is put into practice during transmission phase rather than the receiving phase of a sonar cycle. The amplitude of the dolphins’ echolocation signals are highly range dependent; this amplitude increases as the target increases, R, in a 20 log(R) fashion to compensate for propagation loss. If a school of fishes, with plenty of sound distributors would be the echolocation target, the echoes from the school will be nearly constant with range as the dolphin closes in on it. This characteristic has similar effect as time-varying gain in bats and technological sonar when considered from a sonar system perspective (Wells et. al, 1987). Echolocation – or biosonar is an auditory imaging system used by various species for navigation and for tracking their prey in their vicinity particularly that their eyesight is incapble of helping them. Emission of vocalizations by the echolocating animal are emitted, detecting the echoes of those sounds and uses them to produce three-dimensional information about the environment. Also, these sounds help dolphins to be aware of their environment, preparing for an enemy attack (www. dolphinpod. com). Toothed whales, small mammals such as rats and shrews uses echolocation. These organisms comprehend their environment via the interpretation of acoustic reflections. In other words, echolocation is not just an ordianry auditory scene analysis, itrequires specialized neural mechanisms and complex computations for the oragnism to be able to understand the message given by the sender and to intrepret it corretly by the receiver. The neural circuitry underlying echolocation allows for the perceptual organization of auditory information, which guides complex spatially-guided behaviours. (www. seaworld. org). Whistles, buzzes, qucks and pops are the sounds produced by dolphins associated with travelling, socializing and feeding. Specific sounds are produced for a specific behavior which is also associated with changed in season. Pops are signifies feeding; quacks are for socialization; buzzes are for travelling purposes. During summer, dolphins are busy socializing with other dolphins and travelling for food hunt while during fall, dolphins are preparing for migration (Jacobs et. al, 2003). Smolker and Pepper (1999) state that dolphins are eager to learn new vocalizations (whistles) throughout life. Over a 4 yr study period, three male bottlenose dolphins are subjected to form an alliance, to herd female dolphins. Among individuals, whistle sounds produce are varied. The distinctiveness of individual repertoires decreased, the sounds produced by the three bottlenose dolphins became indistinguishable, because some whistles were shared among each other. By the end of the study, the three bottlenose dolphins had a common whistling sound which was never heard before the alliance was started. The frequency modulation pattern of the signature whistles of each dolphin contains sufficient information for specificity but the information received is used by the receiver to identify individuals. Dolphins do not have individual voice features but the sound production is greatly affected by changing water pressure (Janik, 1999), make voice recognition underwater more complex than that in the air. Also, the pitch and the time travel of the whistle or the sonar produced is also affected. Animals identify each other’s whistles individually rather than just purely differentiating them. Recognition means perceiving something to be similar with an idea or learning that is previously known. Bottlenose dolphins identify themselves with a signature whistle. However, scientists have found no evidence of a dolphin language. A mother dolphin may whistle to her calf almost continuously for several days after giving birth. This acoustic imprinting helps the calf learn to identify its mother (Caldwell, Caldwell, and Tyack, 1990). Discrimination can also be used but it does not need previous learning from comparison purposes. The animals differentiate stimuli among them because animals are biased for one class of stimuli. The biases are mainly family based on a preference for an underlying feature in the modulation pattern used by related individuals. The other explanation is that the animals recognize the preferred stimulus individually particularly if the stimuli was encountered before clarifying previous confusion around the role or even existence of signature whistles (Janik, 1999,Tyack, 2000 and McCowan, 2001). Dolphins ability to and identity information in synthetic signature whistles that had all voice information removed demonstrates that the contour carries such signature information and that this information is used by the receiver. Janik and Slater (1998) argued that the need for individual recognition and group cohesion are the two key factors for the evolution of vocal learning in dolphins. Vocal learning enhances interindividual variability of signature whistles while maintaining potential group, population, or species features in the signal. In signature whistle development, a baby dolphin tends to duplicate the whistle that it only heard rarely adding slight modifications ending up as its own signature whistle (Fripp, et. al, 2005). This process leads to individually distinctive signature whistles. Geographic variation in whistle parameters over longer distances can also be a factor, the whistles produced by the dolphins at Ganges River are far different from those whistle sounds produced by those at Amazon River, or modifications are already done making each whistle sound unique (Wang,1995). However, the largest dolphin species, the killer whale (Orcinus orca), uses group-specific dialects in its communication system (Ford, 1983). Although vocal learning has evolved in one particular context, it can be used for other purposes once it is established. For example, learning also allows duplication of signals in direct social interactions. Dolphins frequently imitate each other’s whistles in the wild (Wells. et. al, 1987). These signature whistles carries identity information independent from voice features portray the possibility of using these as referential signals, either addressing individuals or referring to a group, similar to the use of names in humans. Given the cognitive abilities of bottlenose dolphins (Janik, 1999), their vocal learning and copying skills, and their fission–fusion social structure, their communication process can be further studied to provide evidences about their â€Å"dolphin messages and echoes. † Personal Conclusion All creatures have their own way of communication to their fellow species. Communication and echolocation among dolphins needs further study and experimentation. The processes involved in both communication (whistles) and echolocation are already established but the different factors affecting it are yet to be known. Dolphins have their unique sound, when calling a buddy and same with a mother dolphin calling her young. A mother dolphin whistles to her calf almost continuously for several days after giving birth. This acoustic imprinting produced by the mother dolphin helps the calf learn to identify its mother. Dolphins regulate their sounds by shunting air throughout the air sacs beneath the blowhole. Tissue structures in this area slap together (much like a trumpet player’s lips) to produce the clicks. These sounds often extend into the ultrasound region. The whistling sound and the echoes emitted aids dolphins in their survival. The problem lies if the whistling signal denotes individuality or whether it is just a modification of a whistling sound heard within the surroundings. Other factors such as geographical variation, pitch, waves and others can alter the sound produced. It is just so amazing that despite these factors which need to be further studied, the communication processes among dolphins continuously exist. The meaning of the message is not altered despite the mentioned factors. Also, hundred clicks (sounds) can be produced by dolphins within a second but they are able to produce the correct whistle for a specific event and thus the receiver dolphin reacts accordingly. Aside from the clicks produced, neural activity is still studied on how dolphins can accurately compute the frequency of the clicks emitted for them to understand the message. The whistling communication process among dolphins makes them unique among other sea creatures. Echolocation helps them to locate objects since vision would not be adequate in locating objects down under; also helping them to avoid bumping into other objects like seaweeds and corals. Whistles and echoes are the counterpart of speech and language for humans. Humans’ brains and that of dolphins are relatively of the same size. Neural activity frequency computation still remains unclear. Though many computations had been published, it still seems inadequate to explain the processes involved within the dolphin’s brain. Also, it is fascinating how these control the sound emitted. Despite the factors affecting their communication such as season, water depth, noise pollution, geographic variation their system of communication never failed. Whether it be on great depths of water, the receiver had been effective in sending his message to the receiver. Humans and dolphins are relatively similar but would that be enough to support the conclusion that organisms with bigger brain structure are capable of communicating with one another? Does it follow that complexity is proportional with brain size? Is it safe to assume that humans and dolphins are closely related? Dolphins in Danger Dolphins are indeed lovely sea creatures. It entertains us in its own ways. And often, meaningful association between humans and these sea creatures may develop just like in the movies we watch. It is just unfortunate that man harms these lovely creatures as we pollute and destroy their habitats to serve our own purpose. Human beings are the most complex life forms and we must take the responsibility of protecting these friendly sea creatures. Dying Dolphin and Porpoise References Aubauer, R. and Au, W. (1998). Phantom echo generation: A new technique for investigating dolphin echolocation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 104(3). 1165-1170. Caldwell, Melba C. , David K. Caldwell, and Peter L. Tyack. â€Å"Review of the Signature- Whistle Hypothesis for the Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin. † In The Bottlenose Dolphin, edited by Stephen Leatherwood and Randall R. Reeves, pp. 199-234. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc. , 1990. Dolphin Lovers. com (2006). Dolphin facts. Retrieved February 23, 2007 from http://www. dolphinlovers. com/facts. php. Dolphinear. com. (2006). Dolphin ear. Retrieved 24 February 2007 from http://www. dolphinear. com/data/dolphin_species. htm. Ford, J. K. B. & Fisher, H. D. (1983). In Communication and behavior of whales. Payne, R (ed. ). Westview, Boulder, 129–161.